Comprehensive Psycholinguistics & SLA Guide for UGC NET Aspirants
Psycholinguistics: The study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend, and produce language. It examines the cognitive processes underlying language use and the relationship between linguistic behavior and psychological mechanisms.
Second Language Acquisition (SLA): The process by which people learn a second language in addition to their native language(s). It examines how L2 learners develop linguistic competence and performance over time.
Key Focus Areas:
Second Language Acquisition (SLA): The process by which people learn a second language in addition to their native language(s). It examines how L2 learners develop linguistic competence and performance over time.
Key Focus Areas:
- Language processing (comprehension and production)
- Language acquisition (L1 and L2)
- Neurolinguistics and language disorders
- Bilingualism and multilingualism
- Cognitive aspects of language learning
1. Language Comprehension
1.1 Speech Perception
| Concept | Description | Theories/Models | Key Studies |
|---|---|---|---|
| Categorical Perception | The tendency of listeners to perceive speech sounds according to phonemic categories rather than as a continuum | Motor Theory (Liberman), TRACE Model | Liberman et al. (1957) on /ba/-/da/-/ga/ continuum |
| Cohort Model | Words are recognized by activating all possible candidates (cohort) that match the input, then narrowing down | Marslen-Wilson's Cohort Model | Marslen-Wilson & Welsh (1978) |
| Ganong Effect | Tendency to perceive ambiguous sounds as real words rather than non-words | Top-down processing influence | Ganong (1980) |
| McGurk Effect | Visual information affects auditory perception of speech (multisensory integration) | Multimodal speech perception | McGurk & MacDonald (1976) |
The McGurk Effect (McGurk & MacDonald, 1976)
Demonstration: When visual /ga/ is paired with auditory /ba/, most people perceive /da/.
Significance:
- Shows speech perception is multimodal
- Demonstrates interaction between auditory and visual systems
- Challenges purely auditory models of speech perception
1.2 Reading Processes
Models of Reading
- Dual Route Model: Proposes two pathways for reading (lexical for known words, sublexical for decoding)
- Interactive Activation Model: Letters activate word representations which compete for recognition (McClelland & Rumelhart)
- Garden Path Model: Readers initially build simplest syntactic structure, then revise if needed
Eye Movement in Reading
Key findings from eye-tracking studies:
- Fixations: Pauses on words (200-250ms)
- Saccades: Quick jumps between fixations
- Perceptual Span: 3-4 letters to left, 15 to right of fixation (for English)
- Regression: Backward eye movements for re-reading
2. Language Production
2.1 Speech Production Models
| Model | Key Features | Stages | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| Levelt's Model (1989) | Modular, incremental production |
|
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomena, speech errors |
| Dell's Spreading Activation Model (1986) | Interactive activation between semantic, syntactic, phonological levels | Parallel processing with feedback | Explains mixed speech errors (semantic + phonological) |
Speech Error Analysis
Types of slips of the tongue (Fromkin, 1973):
- Anticipation: "Take my bike" → "bake my bike"
- Perseveration: "Black boxes" → "black bloxes"
- Exchange: "Get your model renosed" (for "get your nose remodeled")
- Blend: "slick" + "slippery" → "slickery"
- Malapropism: "Texas has a lot of electrical votes" (for "electoral")
2.2 Writing Processes
- Hayes-Flower Model (1980): Three processes (planning, translating, reviewing)
- Notenboom & Van Galen (2007): Hierarchical model with multiple levels
- Spelling: Dual route (lexical and non-lexical) similar to reading
3. First Language Acquisition
3.1 Major Theories
| Theory | Key Proponents | Main Ideas | Evidence/Challenges |
|---|---|---|---|
| Behaviorist | Skinner (1957) | Language learned through imitation, reinforcement | Cannot explain creativity, overgeneralization errors |
| Nativist | Chomsky (1965) | Innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD), Universal Grammar | Poverty of stimulus, critical period evidence |
| Interactionist | Bruner, Vygotsky | Social interaction crucial, Language Acquisition Support System (LASS) | Importance of child-directed speech |
| Cognitive | Piaget | Language depends on cognitive development | Sensorimotor stage before language |
Noam Chomsky's Universal Grammar
Key Concepts:
- Poverty of Stimulus: Input is insufficient to explain language acquisition
- Principles and Parameters: Universal principles with language-specific parameters
- Critical Period: Optimal time window for language acquisition
- Recent Versions: Minimalist Program with merge operation
3.2 Developmental Stages
Typical L1 Acquisition Timeline
- 0-6 months: Cooing, vowel sounds
- 6-12 months: Babbling (reduplicated → variegated)
- 12-18 months: First words, holophrastic stage
- 18-24 months: Two-word stage, vocabulary spurt
- 2-3 years: Telegraphic speech, basic syntax
- 3-5 years: Complex sentences, morphology acquired
Morphological Acquisition Order (Brown, 1973)
English-speaking children acquire grammatical morphemes in this order:
- Present progressive (-ing)
- Prepositions (in, on)
- Regular plural (-s)
- Irregular past tense
- Possessive ('s)
- Copula (be)
- Articles (a, the)
- Regular past tense (-ed)
- Third person singular (-s)
- Auxiliary (be)
4. Second Language Acquisition
4.1 Major SLA Theories
| Theory | Key Proponents | Main Ideas | Implications |
|---|---|---|---|
| Monitor Model | Krashen (1982) |
|
Emphasizes comprehensible input, low-anxiety environment |
| Interaction Hypothesis | Long (1983) | Meaning negotiation through interaction facilitates acquisition | Supports communicative language teaching |
| Output Hypothesis | Swain (1985) | Production pushes learners to process language more deeply | Importance of speaking/writing practice |
| Noticing Hypothesis | Schmidt (1990) | Conscious noticing of forms is necessary for acquisition | Supports focus on form in communicative contexts |
| Processability Theory | Pienemann (1998) | Learners acquire processing routines in predictable sequence | Teachability depends on learner readiness |
Krashen's Monitor Model (1982)
Five Hypotheses:
- Acquisition-Learning: Distinct processes (subconscious vs. conscious)
- Monitor: Learned system edits acquired system output
- Natural Order: Grammatical structures acquired in predictable order
- Input (i+1): Comprehensible input slightly above current level
- Affective Filter: Emotional factors can block input
Criticism: Difficult to test empirically, undervalues output
4.2 Learner Language & Errors
Error Analysis (Corder, 1967)
- Errors: Systematic, show learner's current system
- Mistakes: Performance slips
- Types of Errors:
- Interlingual (L1 transfer)
- Intralingual (overgeneralization)
- Communication-based
Interlanguage (Selinker, 1972)
Definition: The developing linguistic system of L2 learners with features of both L1 and L2, plus unique characteristics.
Processes:
- Language Transfer: Influence of L1 on L2
- Overgeneralization: Applying rules too broadly
- Simplification: Omitting elements
- Fossilization: Permanent stabilization of errors
4.3 Individual Differences in SLA
| Factor | Impact on SLA | Key Research |
|---|---|---|
| Age | Critical Period Hypothesis (Lenneberg), younger learners better at pronunciation | Johnson & Newport (1989), Bialystok (1997) |
| Motivation | Integrative vs. instrumental (Gardner & Lambert), Self-Determination Theory | Dörnyei (2005), Gardner (1985) |
| Language Aptitude | MLAT measures phonemic coding, grammatical sensitivity, memory | Carroll (1962), Robinson (2002) |
| Learning Strategies | Cognitive, metacognitive, social strategies affect success | Oxford (1990), O'Malley & Chamot (1990) |
| Personality | Extroversion, risk-taking, anxiety levels influence learning | MacIntyre & Gardner (1991) |
5. Bilingualism & Multilingualism
5.1 Types of Bilingualism
- Simultaneous: Two languages from birth
- Sequential: L2 after L1 established
- Additive: L2 adds to L1 without replacing
- Subtractive: L2 replaces L1
- Balanced: Equal proficiency in both
- Dominant: Stronger in one language
Bilingual Language Processing
Key Models:
- Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994): Asymmetric connections between words and concepts in L1/L2
- Bilingual Interactive Activation (Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 2002): Words from both languages compete during recognition
- Inhibitory Control Model (Green, 1998): Bilinguals inhibit non-target language
5.2 Cognitive Effects
Bilingual Advantage (Bialystok et al.)
Findings:
- Enhanced executive control (attention, switching, inhibition)
- Delayed onset of dementia symptoms
- Greater metalinguistic awareness
Controversies: Some studies fail to replicate, effects may depend on type of bilingualism
6. Neurolinguistics
6.1 Language Areas of the Brain
| Area | Function | Disorders |
|---|---|---|
| Broca's Area (Left frontal lobe) | Speech production, grammar | Broca's aphasia (non-fluent, agrammatic) |
| Wernicke's Area (Left temporal lobe) | Language comprehension | Wernicke's aphasia (fluent but meaningless speech) |
| Arcuate Fasciculus | Connects Broca's and Wernicke's areas | Conduction aphasia (poor repetition) |
| Angular Gyrus | Reading, writing, number processing | Alexia, agraphia |
Classic Aphasia Types
- Broca's: "Um...dog...um...cat...chase..." (telegraphic speech)
- Wernicke's: "The glibber jumped over the flibbertigibbet" (fluent nonsense)
- Global: Severe impairment in all language functions
- Anomic: Difficulty finding words
6.2 Bilingual Brain
- Early bilinguals: Similar neural representation for both languages
- Late bilinguals: More separated representation
- Control mechanisms: Prefrontal cortex important for language switching
- Neuroplasticity: Language learning changes brain structure
7. Critical Period Hypothesis
Critical Period Hypothesis (Lenneberg, 1967): Proposes that there is an ideal time window (puberty) for language acquisition, after which it becomes much more difficult to achieve native-like proficiency, especially for pronunciation and grammar.
Johnson & Newport (1989) Study
Method: Tested Korean and Chinese immigrants' English grammar across different ages of arrival.
Findings:
- Arrival before age 7: Native-like performance
- Arrival age 8-15: Declining performance with age
- Arrival after 15: No correlation between age and proficiency
Interpretation: Supports sensitive period for language learning.
Debates Around CPH
- Multiple Critical Periods: Different aspects (phonology, syntax) may have different sensitive periods
- Exceptional Learners: Some adults achieve near-native proficiency
- Input Quality: Adults may get different (often poorer) input than children
- Neurobiological Evidence: Myelination, lateralization changes
8. Psycholinguistics in UGC NET Exam
High-Probability Exam Topics
- Language Processing Models: Know key models of comprehension and production
- L1 Acquisition Stages: Typical milestones and theories
- SLA Theories: Especially Krashen's Monitor Model
- Bilingualism: Types, cognitive effects, processing models
- Neurolinguistics: Brain areas and aphasia types
- Critical Period: Evidence and debates
- Research Methods: Eye-tracking, priming, ERP studies
How to Approach Psycholinguistics Questions
- Identify the Process: Is it about comprehension, production, acquisition?
- Recall Relevant Models: Which theoretical framework applies?
- Consider Evidence: What studies support this?
- Eliminate Options: Often 2 options can be clearly eliminated
- Watch for Key Terms: "Universal Grammar," "i+1," "interlanguage" etc.
9. Practice Questions for UGC NET
Sample Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which area of the brain is primarily associated with language comprehension?
A) Broca's area
B) Wernicke's area
C) Angular gyrus
D) Cerebellum
2. According to Krashen's Input Hypothesis, optimal input for language acquisition should be:
A) i+0 (at the learner's current level)
B) i+1 (slightly above current level)
C) i-1 (below current level)
D) Randomly varied
3. What does the term "interlanguage" refer to in SLA?
A) A mixed language used between two language communities
B) The learner's developing L2 system with L1 and L2 features
C) A pidgin that has become a creole
D) The language used in international communication
Conclusion
Psycholinguistics and Second Language Acquisition provide crucial insights into how humans process, acquire, and use language, making them essential areas for UGC NET linguistics preparation. By understanding both theoretical models and empirical findings, candidates can effectively address exam questions and develop a comprehensive understanding of language cognition.
Final Preparation Tips
- Create Comparison Tables: E.g., L1 vs. L2 acquisition, comprehension vs. production models
- Associate Theories with Researchers: Make researcher-theory flashcards
- Review Landmark Studies: Know methodologies and findings
- Practice Application: How would concepts apply to Indian language learning contexts?
- Stay Updated: Recent developments in neurolinguistics and bilingualism research
