The Six Pramāṇas (Means of Valid Knowledge)
1. Pratyakṣa (Perception)
Direct knowledge through sense organs
- Nirvikalpa (indeterminate)
- Savikalpa (determinate)
Example: Seeing and recognizing a mango tree
Accepted by: All schools except Cārvāka (which accepts only this)
2. Anumāna (Inference)
Logical deduction from signs/evidence
- Pratijñā (Proposition)
- Hetu (Reason)
- Udāharaṇa (Example)
- Upanaya (Application)
- Nigamana (Conclusion)
Example: Seeing smoke → inferring fire
Accepted by: Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṅkhya, etc.
3. Upamāna (Comparison)
Knowledge through analogy/similarity
- Hearing a description
- Later recognizing through similarity
Example: Identifying a gavaya (wild ox) as "like a cow"
Accepted by: Nyāya, Mīmāṃsā (important for Vedic analogies)
4. Śabda (Verbal Testimony)
Knowledge from reliable verbal authority
- Pauruṣeya (human testimony)
- Apauruṣeya (Vedic testimony)
Example: Learning about dharma from Vedas or guru
Accepted by: All orthodox schools (especially crucial for Vedānta)
5. Arthāpatti (Postulation)
Knowledge through circumstantial implication
- Explains apparent contradictions
- Unique to Prabhākara school
Example: Fat Devadatta doesn't eat by day → must eat at night
Accepted by: Mīmāṃsā, Vedānta
6. Anupalabdhi (Non-apprehension)
Knowledge of absence through non-perception
- Simple absence (no pot in room)
- Mutual absence (cloth is not red)
Example: "There's no elephant in this room"
Accepted by: Kumārila's Mīmāṃsā, Advaita Vedānta
School-Wise Acceptance
(Perception)
(Inference)
(Comparison)
(Testimony)
(Postulation)
(Non-apprehension)
Key Philosophical Significance
- Provides systematic framework for validating knowledge
- Balances empirical (pratyakṣa) and transcendental (śabda) knowledge
- Nyāya's inference method influenced Indian legal systems
- Modern relevance in epistemology and cognitive science
